फरिस्त इन इनडिय

List of firsts in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article does not cite any references or sources.Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2008)
This is a list of firsts in India.
Contents[hide]
1 Architecture
2 Awards and Titles
2.1 Nobel Prize
3 Defence
4 Exploration
5 Film and TV
6 Governance
7 Science
8 Sport
8.1 Olympics
8.2 Chess
8.3 Tennis
8.4 Cricket
9 Minorities
10 Women
10.1 Sport
10.2 Administration and Politics
11 Places
12 Transport
13 Others
14 References
//
[edit] Architecture
First Islamic Mausoleum (tomb) in India: Sultan Ghari, built in 1231 CE for Prince Nasir ud din Mahmud, eldest son of Iltumish.
First true dome, Alai Darwaza, Qutb complex, Delhi, built in 1311 CE, by first Khilji Sultan of Delhi, Ala-ud-din Khilji.
First true arch, Balban's tomb, Mehrauli Archeological Park, Delhi, built in ca 1287 CE, by Ghiyas ud din Balban of Mamluk dynasty.
First garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent, also the first with Persian double-dome: Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, built 1562-1571 CE.
[edit] Awards and Titles
Miss World: Reita Faria in 1966
Miss Universe: Sushmita Sen in 1994
Dhan Gopal Mukerji, first Indian to win any literary award (the Newbery Medal) in the United States, in 1927 for Gay Neck, the Story of a Pigeon
Nirad C. Chaudhuri, first Indian to win a major non-fiction award, the Duff Cooper Prize in the United Kingdom, in 1966 for The Continent of Circe
Salman Rushdie won the Booker Prize for Midnight's Children in 1981
Bharat Ratna: Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, C. Rajagopalachari, and Dr C.V. Raman in 1954
Commandeur of the Order of Arts and Letters: Mrinal Sen[1]
Chevalier of the Order of Arts and Letters: Sivaji Ganesan
Dadasaheb Phalke Award: Devika Rani in 1969
Ashoka Chakra Award to a civilian : D.K. Jatar (posthumous) and M.C Dixit, captain and co-captain respectively, of the sabotaged plane Kashmir Princess, for "most conspicuous bravery, daring and self-sacrifice"
Magsaysay Award: Vinoba Bhave, 1958
Oscar for Lifetime Achievement - Satyajit Ray
Ford Supermodel of the World (contest): Bipasha Basu, 1996[citation needed] [2]
[edit] Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize winner: Rabindranath Tagore for the Nobel Prize in Literature, 1913. He was also the first Asian to get the prize.
Nobel Prize in Physics: C. V. Raman in 1930.
Nobel Prize in Medicine: Har Gobind Khorana in 1968. (India born US citizen)
Nobel Peace Prize: Mother Teresa in 1979 (Albania born Indian citizen)
Nobel Prize in Economics: Amartya Sen in 1998
Nobel Prize in Chemistry: Venkatraman Ramakrishnan in 2009 (US citizen)
Nobel Prize in Economics: Elinor Ostrom in 2009.
[edit] Defence
Commander-in-Chief of Free India: General Sir Roy Bucher
Indian Commander-in-Chief of Free India: General Kodandera Madappa Cariappa, 1949
Chief of Air Staff: Air Marshal Sir Thomas Elmhirst
Indian Chief of Staff: General Kodandera Madappa Cariappa, 1947
Commander-in-Chief, IAF: Air Marshal Subroto Mukerjee, 1954
Chief of Naval Staff: Vice Admiral R D Katari
Cosmonaut: Sqn Ldr Rakesh Sharma, 1984
Field Marshal: Sam Manekshaw, 1973.
[edit] Exploration
Person to reach the South Pole: Col Jatinder Kumar Bajaj
Woman to scale Mount Everest: Bachendri Pal on May 23, 1984. She was the 5th woman in the world to scale the peak.
[edit] Film and TV
Sound film: Alam Ara directed by Ardeshir Irani[3], 1931, First Talkie actress:Zubeida
Oscar winner: Bhanu Athaiya for Best Costume Design for Gandhi (film) in 1982
Oscar nomination for Best Foreign Language Film: Mother India in 1957
Music director to win an Oscar and first double Oscar winner-Mr. A. R. Rahman for Slumdog Millionaire, 22 February 2009.
Sound engineer to win an Oscar: Resul Pookutty for Slumdog Millionaire, 22 February 2009
Palme d'Or at 1946 Cannes Film Festival:Neecha Nagar directed by Chetan Anand
National Film Award for cinema: Shyamchi Aai in 1954
Colorized film: Mughal-e-Azam in 2004 (the original black-and-white version was released in 1960)
Sponsored TV serial: Hum Log, started on July 7, 1984, was also the first soap opera of India, ran for 156 episodes
Guinness Book of World Records in the category Fewest actors in a narrative film: Yaadein (1964) directed and acted by Sunil Dutt [4]
Actor to enact 10 roles: Kamal Haasan
3D film: My Dear Kuttichathan, a Malayalam film, produced in 1984, dubbed in Hindi as Chhota Chetan.
70 mm film: Padayottam, a Malayalam film, produced in 1982
Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (officer of the order of arts and letters): Director: Mrinal Sen (1985); Actor:Sivaji Ganesan (1995); Actress: Aishwarya Rai Bachchan(2009)
Hindi film to be screened at the United Nations: Lage Raho Munna Bhai on 10 November 2006
[edit] Governance
President: Rajendra Prasad (1950-1962)
Vice-President: S. Radhakrishnan
Prime Minister: Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-1964). The first term lasted till 1952 after which he was re-elected
Deputy Prime Minister: Vallabhbhai Patel (1947-1950)
Prime Minister to be voted out of office: Indira Gandhi (1977) when the Indian National Congress lost to the Janata Party
Non-Congress government: by Janata Party with Morarji Desai as the Prime Minister (1977-1980)
Non-Congress State government with Majority by Single Party : C.N.Annadurai of DMK, TamilNadu 1967
Prime Minister to lead a minority government for a full term (five years): P. V. Narasimha Rao, June 21, 1991 – May 16, 1996
Person outside the Nehru-Gandhi family to serve as Prime Minister for a full term (five years): P. V. Narasimha Rao, June 21, 1991 – May 16, 1996
Prime Minister from South India: P. V. Narasimha Rao, 1991
Governor-General: Warren Hastings
Governor General of Independent India: Lord Mountbatten, 1947
Indian Governor-General of Indian Union: C Rajagopalachari, 1948
Chief Justice of India: H. J. Kania (1947-1951)
1st woman speaker of lok sabha-- shanno devi
Indian ICS Officer: Satyendranath Tagore, 1863
Speaker of Lok Sabha: G.V. Mavlankar (1952-1956)
Finance Minister of Independent India: R.K. Shanmukhan Chetty (1947-1949), for others see First Indian Cabinet
Presentation of First Budget after India's Independence : R.K. Shanmukhan Chetty on Nov 26, 1947
First Home Minister of India: Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel[5]
First Indian Chief Minister to die in Office: C.N.Annadurai, TamilNadu
First Indian President to die in Office: Dr Zakir Hussain, 3 May 1969
First Indian Prime Minister to resign from office: Morarji Desai, 1979
First Woman Cabinet Minister in India: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur
First Woman Minister in India: Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
First Woman Chief Minister: Sucheta Kriplani Sucheta Kriplani
First Female Home Minister: Sabitha Indra Reddy Sabitha Indra Reddy
youngest ever chief minister-- prafulla Kumar,assam at the age of 32
[edit] Science
Hydroelectric plant: On the Gaganachukki waterfall of the Sivasamudram Falls, Karnataka. Built in 1902.
City to have electricity: Bangalore, in 1906 (it was in fact the first city in Asia to have electricity)
Man in space: Rakesh Sharma aboard Salyut 7, on April 3, 1984. He was the 138th man in space worldwide.
Woman in space: Kalpana Chawla aboard Space Shuttle Columbia flight STS-87, on November 19, 1997. She was a naturalized United States citizen, and represented the US during the event.
Test-tube baby: Durga Agarwal, born 1978
Scientific Expedition to Antarctica: 1981
Nuclear Reactor: CIRUS, Mumbai, Maharashtra
First Genetically Modified Food Product in India : Bt. Egg plant Hybrid (Bt. -- Bacilius thuringiensis)
Satellite : Aryabhatta, launched on April 19, 1975
Satellite dedicated exclusively for educational services : EDUSET
Successfully indigenous launch vehicle : SLV-3
Prospective space tourist: Santhosh George Kulangara, proposed in 2009 aboard Virgin Galactic
[edit] Sport
Person to swim across the English Channel: Mihir Sen, 1958
Woman to swim across the English Channel: Arati Saha, 1959
Formula One race driver: Narain Karthikeyan
Formula One team: Force India F1
A1 GP race victory: Narain Karthikeyan, Zhuhai, China, 2007
Person to equal world record in Archery: Limba Ram, 1992
[edit] Olympics
Olympic team medal: Gold for Hockey at the 1928 Summer Olympics Amsterdam, beating the Netherlands.
Olympic individual medal (in British India): Silver by Norman Pritchard for 200 metres races at the 1900 Summer Olympics, Paris. (This is disputed however. The IOC claims he participated for India. The IAAF records him as participant for Great Britain.)
Olympic individual medal: Bronze by K. D. Jadhav for wrestling at the 1952 Summer Olympics Helsinki.
Olympic individual medal by a woman: Bronze by Karnam Malleswari for weightlifting 54 kg class, at the 2000 Summer Olympics Sydney.
Olympic silver medal: Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore for Men's Double Trap at the 2004 Summer Olympics Athens.
Olympic individual gold medal: Abhinav Bindra for 10 m Air Rifle at the 2008 Summer Olympics Beijing.
Olympic medal in Boxing: Vijender Kumar at the 2008 Summer Olympics Beijing.
[edit] Chess
Chess Grandmaster : Male - Vishwanathan Anand, 1988.
Female - Koneru Humpy - 2002 - She was also the youngest woman to become a grandmaster at 15 years old.
[edit] Tennis
Grand Slam title: Mahesh Bhupathi (partnering with Japanese Rika Hiraki) in the Mixed Doubles category of the 1997 French Open.
Woman to win a match in a Grand Slam event: Nirupama Vaidyanathan beat Italian Gloria Pizzichini in the first round of the 1998 Australian Open
Woman to reach 4th round (highest as of 2009) of a Grand Slam singles event: Sania Mirza in the Singles category of the 2005 US Open.
Woman to win a Grand Slam title: Sania Mirza (partnering with Mahesh Bhupathi) in the Mixed Doubles category of the 2009 Australian Open.
Grand Slam junior title: Leander Paes in the Singles category of the 1990 Wimbledon Championship.
Grand Slam junior title by a woman: Sania Mirza (partnering with Russian Alisa Kleybanova) in the Doubles category of the 2003 Wimbledon Championships.
[edit] Cricket
Cricket tournament: The Bombay Triangular (1905-1911) which later became the Bombay Quadrangular (1912-1936)
Cricket test match: Against England at Lord's, June 25, 1932
First One day Cricket captain: (S.Venkataraghavan)
First Test Cricket captain: C. K. Nayudu for the 1932 tour of England
First Indian to score ODI century was (Kapil Dev)
Cricketer to score a century: Lala Amarnath 118 against England in December 1933 at Bombay Gymkhana grounds
Cricketer to score a double century: Polly Umrigar, 223 against New Zealand at Hyderabad in 1955-56
Cricketer to score a triple century: Virender Sehwag, 309 against Pakistan in Multan in 2004.
ODI cricket hat-trick: Chetan Sharma in Reliance World Cup against New Zealand in 1987.
Test cricket hat-trick: Harbhajan Singh against Australia in March 2001
Cricket World Cup championship win: At the 1983 Cricket World Cup, England beating West Indies.
Batsman to complete 10,000 runs in Test cricket: Sunil Gavaskar (he was first in the world to achieve this feat)
Batsman to complete 10,000 runs in ODI cricket: Sachin Tendulkar (he was first in the world to achieve this feat)
Cricket Twenty20 world cup winner: India in 2007.
Cricketer to score 90 centuries in Test and ODIs combined: Sachin Tendulkar
First bowler to take all 10 wickets in an innings: Anil Kumble
First batsman to score double century in one day International : Sachin Tendulkar
[edit] Minorities
First Sikh Prime Minister : Manmohan Singh
First Muslim President : Zakir Hussain (1967-1969)
First Sikh President : Giani Zail Singh
First Parsi Army Chief: Field Marshall Sam Manekshaw
First Christian Army Chief: General Sunith Francis Rodrigues
First Sikh Army Chief: General Joginder Jaswant Singh
First Parsi Air Force Chief: Air Marshal Aspy Engineer
First Sikh Air Force Chief: Air Marshal Arjan Singh
First Muslim Air Force Chief: Air Marshal Idris Hasan Latif
First Parsi Navy Chief: Admiral J L Cursetji
First Christian Navy Chief: Admiral R L Pereira
[edit] Women
Graduates: Kadambini Ganguly and Chandramukhi Basu, 1883
Head of an Undergraduate Academic Institution: Chandramukhi Basu, 1888
Honours Graduate: Kamini Roy (1886)
Lawyer: Cornelia Sorabjee (1892)
Doctorate of Science: Asima Chatterjee (1944)
Chief Justice of a High Court (Himachal Pradesh): Leila Seth, 1991
Supreme Court judge: Kumari Fathima Beevi
High Court Judge : Anna Chandy
Physician: Kadambini Ganguly, 1886
Airline Pilot: Durba Banerjee
In space: Kalpana Chawla aboard Space Shuttle Columbia flight STS-87, on November 19, 1997. She was a naturalized United States citizen, and represented the US during the event.
Nobel Prize winner: Mother Teresa in 1979 (Albanian born Indian citizen)
[edit] Sport
Asian Games gold medal winner: Kamlijit Sandhu
To swim across the English Channel: Arati Saha, 1959
The first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest : Bachendri Pal , 1984
Chess Grandmaster: Koneru Humpy, 2002. She was also the youngest woman in the world to become a grandmaster at 15 years old.
To win 1st round match in a Grand Slam event: Nirupama Vaidyanathan beat Italian Gloria Pizzichini in the first round of the 1998 Australian Open
To reach 4th round (highest as of 2008) of a Grand Slam event: Sania Mirza in the Singles category of the 2005 US Open.
Grand Slam junior title: Sania Mirza (partnering with Russian Alisa Kleybanova) in the Doubles category of the 2003 Wimbledon Championships.
[edit] Administration and Politics
First female monarch of Delhi Sultanate: Razia Sultan (1205-1240) of in 1236 Mamluk dynasty
Prime Minister: Indira Gandhi, 1966
Minister in a government: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur in the Ministry of Health
Chief Minister of a State: Sucheta Kripalani, Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, 1963-1967
Governor: Sarojini Naidu, Governor of Uttar Pradesh, 1947-1949
Central Minister (in pre-independent India): Vijayalakshmi Pandit, minister of local self-government and public health, 1937
Speaker of the Lok Sabha: Meira Kumar
Indian National Congress President: Annie Besant
President: Pratibha Patil, 2007
IPS Officer: Kiran Bedi
[edit] Places
City to have electricity: Bangalore, in 1906 (it was in fact the first city in Asia to have electricity)
District to achieve 100% literacy rate: Ernakulam district, Kerala , 1990
City/town to achieve 100% literacy rate: Kottayam, Kerala, 1989
District to achieve 100% literacy rate and lowest population growth rate: Pathanamthitta district, Kerala
District to be polio-free: Pathanamthitta district, Kerala
District to achieve tobacco free: Kottayam district, Kerala, 27 September 2008
City to have an e-court: Ahmedabad, 8 February 2009
[edit] Transport
First Passenger Train: between Mumbai and Thane on 16th April 1853
First suburban railway line: Mumbai Suburban Railway in 1857
First rapid transit (Metro) rail: Kolkata Metro in 1984
First expressway: Mumbai-Pune Expressway in 2000
[edit] Others
Wax statue of a living Indian: Mahatma Gandhi at Madame Tussaud's in 1939
Newspaper : Hickey's Bengal Gazette in 1779
Exclusive internet magazine: Bharat Samachar[citation needed]
Miss India to participate in Miss Universe: Indrani Rahman in the Miss Universe 1952 Pageant at Long Beach, California
President of the Indian National Congress: W C Bonnerjee, 1885
Graduate in Medicine: Soorjo Coomar Goodeve Chuckerbutty
[edit] References
^ The International Who's Who 2004
^ 1996:Leanne Spencer Ford Models website.
^ Gokulsing, K.; Wimal Dissanayake (2004). Indian popular cinema: a narrative of cultural change. Trentham Books. p. 24. ISBN 1858563291. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=_plssuFIar8C&pg=PA24&dq=Ayodhyecha+Raja+1932&cd=10#v=onepage&q=Ayodhyecha%20Raja%201932&f=false.
^ "Kannada film in Guinness". Online Edition of The Hindu, dated 2005-07-15. The Hindu. http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/15/stories/2005071504440600.htm.
^ http://www.facts-about-india.com/First-in-India.html
she
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firsts_in_India"

हजारी प्रसाद द्विवेदी

आधुनिक युग के मौलिक निबंधकार और उत्कृष्ट समालोचक आचार्य हज़ारी प्रसाद द्विवेदी का जन्म १९ अगस्त १९०७ में बलिया जिले के दुबे-का-छपरा नामक ग्राम में हुआ था। उनका परिवार ज्योतिष विद्या के लिए प्रसिध्द था। उनके पिता पं. अनमोल द्विवेदी संस्कृत के प्रकांड पंडित थे। द्विवेदी जी की प्रारंभिक शिक्षा गांव के स्कूल में ही हुई और वहीं से उन्होंने मिडिल की परीक्षा पास की। इसके पश्चात उन्होंने इंटर की परीक्षा और ज्योतिष विषय लेकर आचार्य की परीक्षा उत्तीर्ण की। शिक्षा प्राप्ति के पश्चात द्विवेदी जी शांति निकेतन चले गए और कई वर्षों तक वहां हिंदी विभाग में कार्य करते रहे। शांति-निकेतन में रवींद्रनाथ ठाकुर तथा आचार्य क्षिति मोहन सेन के प्रभाव से साहित्य का गहन अध्ययन और उसकी रचना प्रारंभ की। द्विवेदी जी का व्यक्तित्व बड़ा प्रभावशाली और उनका स्वभाव बड़ा सरल और उदार था। वे हिंदी अंग्रेज़ी, संस्कृत और बंगला भाषाओं के विद्वान थे। भक्तिकालीन साहित्य का उन्हें अच्छा ज्ञान था। लखनऊ विश्वविद्यालय ने उन्हें डी.लिट. की उपाधि देकर उनका विशेष सम्मान किया था।
अनुक्रम[छुपाएँ]
१ वर्ण्य विषय
२ भाषा
३ शैली
४ रचनाएं
५ महत्वपूर्ण कार्य
६ सम्मान
७ यह भी देखें
८ बाहरी कड़ियां
//
[संपादित करें] वर्ण्य विषय
द्विवेदी जी के निबंधों के विषय भारतीय संस्कृति, इतिहास, ज्योतिष, साहित्य विविध धर्मों और संप्रदायों का विवेचन आदि है। वर्गीकरण की दृष्टि से द्विवेदी जी के निबंध दो भागों में विभाजित किए जा सकते हैं - विचारात्मक और आलोचनात्मक।
विचारात्मक निबंधों की दो श्रेणियां हैं। प्रथम श्रेणी के निबंधों में दार्शनिक तत्वों की प्रधानता रहती है। द्वितीय श्रेणी के निबंध सामाजिक जीवन संबंधी होते हैं। आलोचनात्मक निबंध भी दो श्रेणियों में बांटें जा सकते हैं। प्रथम श्रेणी में ऐसे निबंध हैं जिनमें साहित्य के विभिन्न अंगों का शास्त्रीय दृष्टि से विवेचन किया गया है और द्वितीय श्रेणी में वे निबंध आते हैं जिनमें साहित्यकारों की कृतियों पर आलोचनात्मक दृष्टि से विचार हुआ है। द्विवेदी जी के इन निबंधों में विचारों की गहनता, निरीक्षण की नवीनता और विश्लेषण की सूक्ष्मता रहती है।
[संपादित करें] भाषा
द्विवेदी जी की भाषा शुध्द साहित्यिक खड़ी बोली है। उन्होंने भाव और विषय के अनुसार ही भाषा का प्रयोग किया है। उनकी भाषा के दो रूप दिखलाई पड़ते हैं - (1) सरल साहित्यिक भाषा, (2) संस्कृत गर्भित क्लिष्ट भाषा। प्रथम रूप द्विवेदी जी के सामान्य निबंधों में मिलता है। इस प्रकार की भाषा में उर्दू और अंग्रेज़ी के शब्दों का भी समावेश हुआ है। सर्वत्र ही स्वाभाविक और प्रवाहमयता मिलती है।
द्विवेदी जी की भाषा का दूसरा रूप उनकी आलोचनात्मक रचनाओं में मिलता है। इनमें संस्कृत के तत्सम शब्दों की प्रधानता है। यह भाषा अधिक संयत और प्रांजल है। इस भाषा में भी कहीं कृत्रिमता या चमत्कार प्रदर्शन नहीं है और वह स्वाभाविक और प्रवाहपूर्ण है।
[संपादित करें] शैली

फोटो में बाएँ आचार्य हजारीप्रसाद द्विवेदी, दायें महापंडित राहुल सांकृत्यायन।
द्विवेदी जी की रचनाओं में उनकी शैली के निम्नलिखित रूप मिलते हैं -
(1) गवेषणात्मक शैली द्विवेदी जी के विचारात्मक तथा आलोचनात्मक निबंध इस शैली में लिखे गए हैं। यह शैली द्विवेदी जी की प्रतिनिधि शैली है। इस शैली की भाषा संस्कृत प्रधान और अधिक प्रांजल है। वाक्य कुछ बड़े-बड़े हैं। इस शैली का एक उदाहरण देखिए - लोक और शास्त्र का समन्वय, ग्राहस्थ और वैराग्य का समन्वय, भक्ति और ज्ञान का समन्वय, भाषा और संस्कृति का समन्वय, निर्गुण और सगुण का समन्वय, कथा और तत्व ज्ञान का समन्वय, ब्राह्मण और चांडाल का समन्वय, पांडित्य और अपांडित्य का समन्वय, राम चरित मानस शुरू से आखिर तक समन्वय का काव्य है।
(2) वर्णनात्मक शैली द्विवेदी जी की वर्णनात्मक शैली अत्यंत स्वाभाविक एवं रोचक है। इस शैली में हिंदी के शब्दों की प्रधानता है, साथ ही संस्कृत के तत्सम और उर्दू के प्रचलित शब्दों का भी प्रयोग हुआ है। वाक्य अपेक्षाकृत बड़े हैं।
(3) व्यंग्यात्मक शैली द्विवेदी जी के निबंधों में व्यंग्यात्मक शैली का बहुत ही सफल और सुंदर प्रयोग हुआ है। इस शैली में भाषा चलती हुई तथा उर्दू, फारसी आदि के शब्दों का प्रयोग मिलता है।
(4) व्यास शैली द्विवेदी जी ने जहां अपने विषय को विस्तारपूर्वक समझाया है, वहां उन्होंने व्यास शैली को अपनाया है। इस शैली के अंतर्गत वे विषय का प्रतिपादन व्याख्यात्मक ढंग से करते हैं और अंत में उसका सार दे देते हैं।
[संपादित करें] रचनाएं
द्विवेदी जी की रचनाएं दो प्रकार की हैं, मौलिक और अनूदित। उनकी मौलिक रचनाओं में सूर साहित्य हिंदी साहित्य की भूमिका, कबीर, विचार और वितर्क अशोक के फूल, वाण भट्ट की आत्म-कथा आदि मुख्य हैं। प्रबंध चिंतामणी, पुरातन प्रबंध-संग्रह, विश्व परिचय, लाल कनेर आदि द्विवेदी जी की अनूदित रचनाएं हैं। इनके अतिरिक्त द्विवेदी जी ने अनेक स्वतंत्र निबंधों की रचना की है जो विभिन्न पत्र-पत्रिकाओं में प्रकाशित हुए हैं।
[संपादित करें] महत्वपूर्ण कार्य
द्विवेदी जी का हिंदी निबंध और आलोचनात्मक क्षेत्र में महत्वपूर्ण स्थान है। वे उच्च कोटि के निबंधकार और सफल आलोचक हैं। उन्होंने सूर, कबीर, तुलसी आदि पर जो विद्वत्तापूर्ण आलोचनाएं लिखी हैं, वे हिंदी में पहले नहीं लिखी गईं। उनका निबंध-साहित्य हिंदी की स्थाई निधि है। उनकी समस्त कृतियों पर उनके गहन विचारों और मौलिक चिंतन की छाप है। विश्व-भारती आदि के द्वारा द्विवेदी जी ने संपादन के क्षेत्र में पर्याप्त सफलता प्राप्त की है।
[संपादित करें] सम्मान
हजारी प्रसाद द्विवेदी को साहित्य एवं शिक्षा के क्षेत्र में सन १९५७ में पद्म भूषण से सम्मानित किया गया।

नारद

नारद मुनि, हिन्दू शास्त्रों के अनुसार, ब्रह्मा के सात मानस पुत्रो मे से एक है। उन्होने कठिन तपस्या से ब्रह्मर्षि पद प्राप्त किया है। वे भगवान विष्णु के अनन्य भक्तों मे से एक माने जाते है।
देवर्षि नारद धर्म के प्रचार तथा लोक-कल्याण हेतु सदैव प्रयत्नशील रहते हैं। शास्त्रों में इन्हें भगवान का मन कहा गया है। इसी कारण सभी युगों में, सब लोकों में, समस्त विद्याओं में, समाज के सभी वर्गो में नारदजी का सदा से प्रवेश रहा है। मात्र देवताओं ने ही नहीं, वरन् दानवों ने भी उन्हें सदैव आदर दिया है। समय-समय पर सभी ने उनसे परामर्श लिया है। श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता के दशम अध्याय के २६वें श्लोक में स्वयं भगवान श्रीकृष्ण ने इनकी महत्ता को स्वीकार करते हुए कहा है - देवर्षीणाम्चनारद:। देवर्षियों में मैं नारद हूं। श्रीमद्भागवत महापुराणका कथन है, सृष्टि में भगवान ने देवर्षि नारद के रूप में तीसरा अवतार ग्रहण किया और सात्वततंत्र(जिसे <न् द्धह्मद्गद्घ="द्वड्डद्बद्यह्लश्र:नारद-पाञ्चरात्र">नारद-पाञ्चरात्र भी कहते हैं) का उपदेश दिया जिसमें सत्कर्मो के द्वारा भव-बंधन से मुक्ति का मार्ग दिखाया गया है।
वायुपुराण में देवर्षि के पद और लक्षण का वर्णन है- देवलोक में प्रतिष्ठा प्राप्त करनेवाले ऋषिगण देवर्षिनाम से जाने जाते हैं। भूत, वर्तमान एवं भविष्य-तीनों कालों के ज्ञाता, सत्यभाषी,स्वयं का साक्षात्कार करके स्वयं में सम्बद्ध, कठोर तपस्या से लोकविख्यात,गर्भावस्था में ही अज्ञान रूपी अंधकार के नष्ट हो जाने से जिनमें ज्ञान का प्रकाश हो चुका है, ऐसे मंत्रवेत्तातथा अपने ऐश्वर्य (सिद्धियों) के बल से सब लोकों में सर्वत्र पहुँचने में सक्षम, मंत्रणा हेतु मनीषियोंसे घिरे हुए देवता, द्विज और नृपदेवर्षि कहे जाते हैं।
इसी पुराण में आगे लिखा है कि धर्म, पुलस्त्य,क्रतु, पुलह,प्रत्यूष,प्रभास और कश्यप - इनके पुत्रों को देवर्षिका पद प्राप्त हुआ। धर्म के पुत्र नर एवं नारायण, क्रतु के पुत्र बालखिल्यगण,पुलहके पुत्र कर्दम, पुलस्त्यके पुत्र कुबेर, प्रत्यूषके पुत्र अचल, कश्यप के पुत्र नारद और पर्वत देवर्षि माने गए, किंतु जनसाधारण देवर्षिके रूप में केवल नारदजी को ही जानता है। उनकी जैसी प्रसिद्धि किसी और को नहीं मिली। वायुपुराण में बताए गए देवर्षि के सारे लक्षण नारदजी में पूर्णत:घटित होते हैं।
महाभारत के सभापर्व के पांचवें अध्याय में नारदजी के व्यक्तित्व का परिचय इस प्रकार दिया गया है - देवर्षि नारद वेद और उपनिषदों के मर्मज्ञ, देवताओं के पूज्य, इतिहास-पुराणों के विशेषज्ञ, पूर्व कल्पों (अतीत) की बातों को जानने वाले, न्याय एवं धर्म के तत्त्‍‌वज्ञ, शिक्षा, व्याकरण, आयुर्वेद, ज्योतिष के प्रकाण्ड विद्वान, संगीत-विशारद, प्रभावशाली वक्ता, मेधावी, नीतिज्ञ, कवि, महापण्डित, बृहस्पति जैसे महाविद्वानोंकी शंकाओं का समाधान करने वाले, धर्म-अर्थ-काम-मोक्ष के यथार्थ के ज्ञाता, योगबलसे समस्त लोकों के समाचार जान सकने में समर्थ, सांख्य एवं योग के सम्पूर्ण रहस्य को जानने वाले, देवताओं-दैत्यों को वैराग्य के उपदेशक, क‌र्त्तव्य-अक‌र्त्तव्य में भेद करने में दक्ष, समस्त शास्त्रों में प्रवीण, सद्गुणों के भण्डार, सदाचार के आधार, आनंद के सागर, परम तेजस्वी, सभी विद्याओं में निपुण, सबके हितकारी और सर्वत्र गति वाले हैं। अट्ठारह महापुराणों में एक नारदोक्त पुराण; बृहन्नारदीय पुराण के नाम से प्रख्यात है। मत्स्यपुराण में वर्णित है कि श्री नारदजी ने बृहत्कल्प-प्रसंग में जिन अनेक धर्म-आख्यायिकाओं को कहा है, २५००० श्लोकों का वह महाग्रंथ ही नारद महापुराण है। वर्तमान समय में उपलब्ध नारदपुराण २२००० श्लोकों वाला है। ३,००० श्लोकों की न्यूनता प्राचीन पाण्डुलिपि का कुछ भाग नष्ट हो जाने के कारण हुई है। नारदपुराण में लगभग ७५० श्लोक ज्योतिषशास्त्र पर हैं। इनमें ज्योतिष के तीनों स्कन्ध-सिद्धांत, होरा और संहिता की सर्वागीण विवेचना की गई है। नारदसंहिता के नाम से उपलब्ध इनके एक अन्य ग्रंथ में भी ज्योतिषशास्त्र के सभी विषयों का सुविस्तृत वर्णन मिलता है। इससे यह सिद्ध हो जाता है कि देवर्षिनारद भक्ति के साथ-साथ ज्योतिष के भी प्रधान आचार्य हैं। आजकल धार्मिक चलचित्रों और धारावाहिकों में नारदजी का जैसा चरित्र-चित्रण हो रहा है, वह देवर्षि की महानता के सामने एकदम बौना है। नारदजी के पात्र को जिस प्रकार से प्रस्तुत किया जा रहा है, उससे आम आदमी में उनकी छवि लडा़ई-झगडा़ करवाने वाले व्यक्ति अथवा विदूषक की बन गई है। यह उनके प्रकाण्ड पांडित्य एवं विराट व्यक्तित्व के प्रति सरासर अन्याय है। नारद जी का उपहास उडाने वाले श्रीहरि के इन अंशावतार की अवमानना के दोषी है। भगवान की अधिकांश लीलाओं में नारदजी उनके अनन्य सहयोगी बने हैं। वे भगवान के पार्षद होने के साथ देवताओं के प्रवक्ता भी हैं। नारदजी वस्तुत: सही मायनों में देवर्षि हैं।
[संपादित करें] विभिन्न धर्मग्रन्थों में
नारद मुनि को देवर्षि कहा गया है। विभिन्न धर्मग्रन्थों में इनका उल्लेख आता है। कुछ उल्लेख निम्न हैं:[१]
अथर्ववेद के अनुसार नारद नाम के एक ऋषि हुए हैं।
ऐतरेय ब्राह्मण के कथन के अनुसार हरिशचंद्र के पुरोहित सोमक, साहदेव्य के शिक्षक तथा आग्वष्टय एवम् युधाश्रौष्ठि को अभिशप्त करने वाले भी नारद थे।
मैत्रायणी संहिता में नारद नाम के एक आचार्य हुए हैं।
सामविधान ब्राह्मण में बृहस्पति के शिष्य के रू प में नारद का वर्णन मिलता है।
छान्दोग्यपनिषद् में नारद का नाम सनत्कुमारों के साथ लिखा गया है।
महाभारत में मोक्ष धर्म के नारायणी आख्यान में नारद की उत्तरदेशीय यात्रा का विवरण मिलता है। इसके अनुसार उन्होंने नर-नारायण ऋषियों की तपश्चर्या देखकर उनसे प्रश्न किया और बाद में उन्होंने नारद को पांचरात्र धर्म का श्रवण कराया।
नारद पंचरात्र के नाम से एक प्रसिद्ध वैष्णव ग्रंथ भी है जिसमें दस महाविद्याओं की कथा विस्तार से कही गई है। इस कथा के अनुसार हरी का भजन ही मुक्ति का परम कारण माना गया है।
नारद पुराण के नाम से एक ग्रंथ मिलता है। इस ग्रंथ के पूर्वखंड में 125 अघ्याय और उत्तरखण्ड में 182 अघ्याय हैं।
कुछ स्मृतिकारों ने नारद का नाम सर्वप्रथम स्मृतिकार के रू प में माना है।
नारद स्मृति में व्यवहार मातृका यानी अदालती कार्रवाई और सभा अर्थात न्यायालय सर्वोपरि माना गया है। इसके अलावा इस स्मृति में ऋणाधान ऋण वापस प्राप्त करना, उपनिधि यानी जमानत, संभुय, समुत्थान यानी सहकारिता, दत्ताप्रदानिक यानी करार करके भी उसे नहीं मानने, अभ्युपेत्य-असुश्रुषा यानी सेवा अनुबंध को तोड़ना है। वेतनस्य अनपाकर्म यानी काम करवाके भी वेतन का भुगतान नहीं करना शामिल है। नारद स्मृति में अस्वामी विक्रय यानी बिना स्वामित्व के किसी चीज का विक्रय कर देने को दंडनीय अपराध माना है। विक्रिया संप्रदान यानी बेच कर सामान न देना भी अपराध की कोटि में है। इसके अतिरिक्त क्रितानुशय यानी खरीदकर भी सामान न लेना, समस्यानपाकर्म यानी निगम श्रेणी आदि के नियमों का भंग करना, सीमाबंद यानी सीमा का विवाद और स्त्रीपुंश योग यानी वैवाहिक संबंध के बारे में भी नियम-कायदों की चर्चा मिलती है। नारद स्मृति में दायभाग यानी पैतृक संपत्ति के उत्तराधिकार और विभाजन की चर्चा भी मिलती है। इसमें साहस यानी बल प्रयोग द्वारा अपराधी को दंडित करने का विधान भी है। नारद स्मृति वाक्पारूष्य यानी मानहानि करने, गाली देने और दण्ड पारूष्य यानी चोट और क्षति पहुंचाने का वर्णन भी करती है। नारद स्मृति के प्रकीर्णक में विविध अपराधों और परिशिष्ट में चौर्य एवं दिव्य परिणाम का निरू पण किया गया है। नारद स्मृति की इन व्यवस्थाओं पर मनु स्मृति का पूर्ण प्रभाव दिखाई देता है।
श्रीमद्भागवत और वायुपुराण के अनुसार देवर्षि नारद का नाम दिव्य ऋषि के रू प में भी वर्णित है। ये ब्रह्मधा के मानस पुत्र थे। नारद का जन्म ब्रह्मधा की जंघा से हुआ था। इन्हें वेदों के संदेशवाहक के रू प में और देवताओं के संवाद वाहक के रू प में भी चित्रित किया गया है। नारद देवताओं और मनुष्यों में कलह के बीज बोने से कलिप्रिय अथवा कलहप्रिय कहलाते हैं। मान्यता के अनुसार वीणा का आविष्कार भी नारद ने ही किया था।
ब्रह्मवैवर्त पुराण के अनुसार मेरू के चारों ओर स्थित बीस पर्वतों में से एक का नाम नारद है।
मत्स्य पुराण के अनुसार वास्तुकला विशारद अठारह आचार्यो में से एक का नाम भी नारद है। चार शक्ति देवियों में से एक शक्ति देवी का नाम नारदा है।
रघुवंश के अनुसार लोहे के बाण को नाराच कहते हैं। जल के हाथी को भी नाराच कहा जाता है। स्वर्णकार की तराजू अथवा कसौटी का नाम नाराचिका अथवा नाराची है।
मनुस्मृति के अनुसार एक प्राचीन ऋषि का नाम नारायण है जो नर के साथी थे। नारायण ने ही अपनी जंघा से उर्वशी को उत्पन्न किया था। विष्णु के एक विशेषण के रू प में भी नारायण शब्द का प्रयोग किया जाता है।

gandhi

GANDHI AS A COMMUNICATOR
B.N.Patnaik
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences
And
Centre for Creative Writing and Publication
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Kanpur – 208 016
Email: patnaik@iitk.ac.in
Although Gandhi might appear to be a well-studied subject, there are indeed aspects of this subject that await serious scholarly attention. In our view, Gandhi as a communicator is one such. It is generally held that Gandhi was a great communicator and it has often been observed that Gandhi’s success as a communicator was due to the various strategies that he had insightfully designed to communicate with the people of India, but this is perhaps only part of the explanation. Besides, one might argue that those strategies worked primarily because it was Gandhi who used them. The language and the style of Gandhi and his use of the verbal and non-verbal resources for communicative purposes await careful study. To understand his effectiveness as a communicator one might also consider studying his ideas and thoughts, although communication theorists tend to neglect the content or the interest value of what is being communicated in their attempt to build models of communication. Here we do not aspire to go beyond merely scratching the surface of the subject under study, namely, Gandhi as a communicator, and we propose to present our observations in the form of somewhat loose notes, rather than of a well structured essay containing a well formulated thesis.
It has often been asserted that Gandhi’s impact on the people he met and spoke to was simply electrifying. These people were not just freedom fighters and politicians, writers and thinkers; there were among them slum dwellers and villagers, farmers and labourers, little-educated people and illiterates. But Gandhi wasn’t a populist, saying what he thought his audience would like to hear; he was on the contrary quite capable of saying things or doing things that were rather incomprehensible to the people at large or were considered unacceptable, which may not be surprising since he was a great deal more than the leader of a freedom movement; he was a social reformer too.
Communication theorists see communication essentially as sharing: sharing of meaning, although they are not unanimous with regard to who are involved in this sharing (Fiske; 1990). Does this sharing involve, in all instances of communication - real life, day-to-day interactions, and reading of texts both - only the speaker (the writer) and the hearer (the reader) – one might use the term “speaker – hearer” in the context of real life interaction - or does this involve only the readers, who engage themselves with the text, the writer not coming into the picture at all? How much is shared in communication: only the basic meaning or the meaning and the entire emotional field in which this meaning is created? There could be obvious difficulties in knowing, except in the clear cases, whether in some specific instance there has been a considerable degree of sharing, no matter who the “sharers” are. But to the best of our knowledge main schools of 1
thought on communication do not dissociate sharing from communication on account of this or other difficulties. Communication, they would argue, is not the same thing as arriving at an interpretation of an utterance, an action, etc. It may be the case that each hearer decodes a meaning from, or assigns a meaning to, some message (a text), and that it is an individual act. But so long as at least another hearer does not assign the same, or basically the same, interpretation to the text concerned, no communication can be said to have taken place. If the interactants know that they have assigned the same, or at least somewhat similar, meanings to the given text, then they know that they have communicated. It is possible that they do not know this, being, say, at different places, but an observer does, in which case, as far as the observer is concerned, communication has taken place between them.
Problems with the encoding–decoding approach to communication are familiar. If the meaning decoded is not the same as the meaning encoded, which may be due to a host of reasons that are of no concern for us here, then communication can not be said to have taken place. But in principle it can never be known for certain what meaning the speaker actually wanted to communicate, because, the speaker, say, may not be reachable for clarification, or may not be cooperative in this regard. However for all practical purposes, there need not be any hesitation to bring the speaker into the ambit of the conceptualization of communication, when the speaker is accessible and is cooperative. Turning to a different matter, the question arises as to how close the decoded meaning has to be to the encoded one, so that one could say that communication has taken place? (The same question arises in a different form when the speaker does not enter into the picture: instead of the speaker and the hearer, only the hearers are involved.) Besides, one might have performed in a wide variety of communicative situations: one might have written letters to individuals, and expressed one’s views in newspapers or magazines, or written books, given interviews, spoken to individuals and to small groups, and spoken to large gatherings in public meetings, etc. Does the same notion of sharing explain communication in all these instances? Is it a context dependent notion?
These question becomes particularly significant in the case of people like Gandhi, who did all of the above. People followed him, even when they did not see his point or grasp its significance, instances of which are easily available. Gandhi addressed a public meeting on the sands of the river Kathjori in Cuttack, and he spoke in Hindi (rather Hindustani, as he called it). Thousands attended the meeting, it is reported, and in our assessment it is unlikely that people understood what he was saying. However, they were as greatly influenced by him as people anywhere else. The eminent Oriya author Surendra Mohanty mentions an interesting incident which is relevant in the present context. His mother went to see Gandhi along with hundreds of people from her village and the neighbouring ones. Mohanty, a primary school student at that time, teased his mother by asking her what Gandhi had told her. She said that he didn’t tell her anything, but was merely asking people to give him their gold. He then asked her whether she did that, to which she irritatingly replied that she certainly didn’t, but had ceremonially greeted him with the gift of only a silver rupee. She never cared to know why he wanted gold from the people and was never willing to part with her gold, but she thought it necessary to greet him with the offering of a coin, although a silver one, since this is what
2
one traditionally does when one goes to a temple or goes to pay respects to a saint, etc. One of my uncles who worked as a prison official, had no love for the freedom fighters – the Gandhian Congressmen - because as far as he was concerned, they were an undisciplined lot in the prison, shouting anti-government slogans, observing fasts, etc. But he always remembered with great sense of pride and satisfaction that he had given Gandhi an adhalaa (one hundred twentieth of a rupee, which during those days was perhaps not an insignificant amount, at least for people like him, who were lowly paid government employees). It was again like an offering that one makes when one goes to see a saint and the like. He didn’t understand what Gandhi said, and perhaps it didn’t matter to him. He experienced fulfillment when he saw Gandhi, touched him, and made that little offering of the adhalaa to him. The tribals in some parts of Orissa suffered torture for participating in “Congress” activities but controlled themselves not to retaliate, because they were given to understand that “Gandhi Baba” did not want them to do so. They did not know Gandhi’s reasons. It was perhaps sufficient for them to know from the local Congress leaders that Gandhi Baba advocated non-violence. If they followed him, it was not because they necessarily agreed with him or were able to appreciate the idea that non-violent struggle was the best way to fight for freedom under the prevailing circumstances; they followed him because he asked them to do so. Their faith on Gandhi was so great that they were willing to follow him; Gandhi was “Gandhi Baba” for them. What most villagers, the poor, the illiterate people, knew about what Gandhi was saying was what they had heard from their local Congress workers in some simple form – almost in terms of imperatives such as wear khadi, do not drink, do not practices untouchability in any form, etc.
Such near-deification even in modern times is not an unfamiliar phenomenon in this country which assigns the greatest value to asceticism and spiritualism and this phenomenon and the process that culminates in this can be looked at from various points of view: mass-psychological, socio-cultural, among others. It can be meaningfully looked at from the communicative perspective also; when the credibility of the source (of the message) is so high, message reduces to a great extent to the source – in some sense, the source “communicates” by mere presence, rather than by language or any other communicative resource. One might argue that calling this “communication” would amount to diluting the concept so much that it becomes almost vacuous, and suggest that a term such as “relate to” might be more appropriate. While communication might be included in the concept of “relate to”, it need not necessarily be so, as evident from the instances above. One might then observe that Gandhi indeed “related to” certain sections of the population, but did not necessarily “communicate” with them in the familiar sense of this term.
At another level Gandhi interacted with a very different part of the population, namely, the educated and the sophisticated, through what he wrote and said. Language here becomes very important, being the main resource of communication. Even a cursory look at his writing reveals the sincerity and the genuineness of his concerns because of which his style had a certain character: it was simple, direct and clear. Consider these examples:
3
(1) Hinduism has sinned in giving sanction to untouchability (Young India, April 24, 1921).
(2) We glibly charge Englishmen with insolence and haughtiness. Let us, before we cast the stone at them, free ourselves from liability to reproach. Let us put our house in order (Young India, May 11, 1921).
(3) We are guilty of having suppressed our brethren; we make them crawl on their bellies, we have made them rub their noses on the ground; we push them out of railway compartment – what more than this has British rule done? What charge can we bring against Dyer and O’Dwyer, may not other, and even our own, people lay at our doors? We ought to purge ourselves of this pollution (Young India, May 4, 1921).
(4) The curse of foreign domination and the attendant exploitation is the justest retribution meted out by God to us for our exploitation of a sixth of our race and their studied degradation in the sacred name of religion (Young India, December 29, 1920).
There is no ambiguity in the language, no hedging, and no avoiding saying directly what he thought about some matter in apprehension of the possible resentment that these thoughts might evoke in the people. In fact, it is this directness that makes his expression forceful.
Gandhi eschewed rhetoric in favour of clarity and directness. One rhetorical device that Gandhi used effectively, like many other effective journalists, was rhetorical question. He used it only occasionally, as in the third extract above and in the following:
(6) The Qaid-e-Azam says that all the Muslims will be safe in Pakistan. In Punjab, Sind and Bengal we have Muslim League Governments. Can one say that what is happening in those provinces augurs well for the peace of the country? Does the Muslim League believe that it can sustain Islam by the sword (Speech at a Prayer Meeting, September 7, 1946)?
(7) What good will it do the Muslims to avenge the happenings in Delhi or for the Sikhs and the Hindus to avenge cruelties on our co-religionists in the Frontier and West Punjab? If a man or a group of men go mad, should everyone follow suit (From a Prayer Meeting, September 12, 1947)?
Apart from rhetorical question, he sometimes used irony, as in (8) and occasionally, a simple metaphor, as in (9). Simplicity of language, the balanced structure and the irony make (8) effective.
(8) I believe myself to be an orthodox Hindu and it is my conviction that no one who scrupulously practices the Hindu religion may kill a cow-killer to protect a cow (On “Hindu Muslim Unity”, April 8, 1919).
(9) Let not future generations say that we lost the sweet bread of freedom because we could not digest it (From a Prayer Meeting, September 12, 1947).
An unexciting metaphor, a student of language might say, but an intelligible metaphor from the point of view of the common man. He could use gentle satire quite effectively;
4
when, after the reception at Buckingham Palace, King George V warned him against attacks on the British Empire, Gandhi’s reply was (10):
(10) I must not be drawn into a political argument in Your Majesty’s Palace after receiving Your Majesty’s hospitality. (Gandhi, R. 1995: 117)
It is often observed that Gandhi had developed an idiom with which to express himself as he interacted with the common man. Like many other successful leaders, who were great communicators, he explored the common Indian’s belief system, his awareness of his myths, his strong religious orientation, etc. to make his experience and thoughts readily intelligible to him: raam raajya becomes the name of the ideal state; harijan is used refer to one belonging to an oppressed caste; satyaagraha is the term for non-violent non-cooperation with the oppressor. We do not wish to suggest that here was a false ring about all these in the sense that these expressions were just nothing more than part of his strategy to pursue a hidden agenda. It is possible that being religious, he might have made sense of the reality around him that way and his language merely reflected this.(Of course those who think like Akeel Bilgrami (2002, p. 79) that a proper assessment of Gandhiji is that he was a shrewd politician, would probably maintain that Gandhi’s style was nothing but a mere strategy. We would avoid saying anything in this regard. We believe that genuineness or otherwise of a person can hardly be determined with any certainty without knowledge of his intentions, among others; but one does not wear one’s intentions on his sleeve, as it is said.)
His language was polite, shunning harshness, as is evident from his interactions with the English men and women, and also from what he said in response to highly critical remarks about India from people like Churchill. Consider just one instance. When Churchill made extremely negative remarks about the post-Independence violence in the subcontinent, Gandhi responded to the same in the following way:
(11) Mr. Churchill is a great man…He took the helm when Great Britain was in danger…he saved the British Empire from a great danger at that time… If he knew that India would be reduced to such a state after freeing itself from the rule of the British Empire, did he for a moment take the trouble of thinking that the entire responsibilities for it lies with the British Empire? (Gandhi, R. 1995:143)
As far as the language for communication is concerned, he chose to express himself in Gujarati, Hindi (or Hindustani, as he would call it) and English. The choice of the language obviously depended on who he was addressing to. He would however say that English was not in the best interests of India, because it was and would always be used by a very small section of the people. “Our English speech,” he said, in an answer to a student’s question, “has isolated us from the millions of our countrymen” (December 12, 1925).
While on Gandhi’s language and style, it might be worthwhile to bring some other great communicators into the ambit of this discussion to hopefully understand Gandhiji as a communicator better. One could think of Churchill and Hitler in this regard. They too
5
have been regarded as great communicators. They invoked God to inspire their people. They all reminded people of their great past, and of their great latent power. They all asserted that their fight was for a just cause, and presented their fight as one against the forces of evil. The language each used was simple, straightforward, and unambiguous. But what separates Gandhi from Hitler is the extreme egotism that one finds in Hitler’s but not Gandhi’s language, which is not surprising, since Hitler saw himself as a kind of saviour and had no hesitation in giving expression to it in public. Consider this from his speech “My patience is now at an end”:
(12) In this hour the German people will unite with me! It will feel my will to be its will. Just as in my eyes it is its future and its fate which gives me the commission for my action…And so I ask you my German people to take your stand behind me, man by man, and woman by woman (September 26, 1938).
As for Churchill, he sometimes used offensive language that brought out his prejudices, as (13) would show, whereas Gandhi’s language was free from hatred. Although the latter had no doubt that his fight against the British Empire was indeed a righteous fight against grave injustice, there was no trace of Hitler’s egotism or Churchill’s offensiveness in his language.
(13) I do not agree that the dog in a manger has the final right to the manger even though he might have lain there for a very long time. I do not admit that right. I do not admit for instance that a great wrong has been done to the Red Indians of America or the black people of Australia. I do not admit that a wrong has been done to these people by the fact that a stronger race, a more worldly wise race to put it that way, has come in and taken their place. (Roy, A. in Frontline, October 11, 2002)
For an adequate understanding of Gandhi as a communicator, it may be necessary to bear in mind that he had, as already mentioned, a very diverse audience, comprising at one level, people belonging to various religions and castes, who often perceived their interests to be mutually conflicting, and were consequently hostile to one another. The partition riots were not spontaneous, but actually an outburst of accumulated mistrust and hatred of the warring communities over a period of time. Gandhi condemned all those who indulged in violence, as the relevant extracts from his work, cited above, show. As the extracts also show, he didn’t say what would please his audience; he often said the contrary. But he talked about non-violence, togetherness, and harmony. He talked about sarvodaya, the “rise of all”. In contrast, Hitler harped on the humiliation that the Germans felt they had been subjected to after the First World War, and Churchill led his people, who were naturally beset with anxiety and a sense of insecurity, during the war. They did not talk of harmony. They did not talk in terms of “hate the sin but not the sinner”, in which terms Gandhi in contrast spoke. In a way Hitler and Churchill told their respective people what they wanted to hear, unlike Gandhi. But their receptive audience was restricted to the Germans and the English respectively and excluded their adversaries. The same cannot be said about Gandhi. He could speak to the textile workers of Lancashire who were adversely affected by his call to boycott foreign cloth, and could win their understanding. Perhaps one communicates with a wider and a more diverse
6
audience if one talks the language of peace and harmony, rather than the language of discord and hatred. The language of peace and harmony brings to mind the possibility of a humane society; it reassures people of each section of a pluralistic society; it expresses an affirmation that everyone has a rightful place in the society irrespective of one’s religion, language or any other similar identities. The language of hatred and violence divides people, creates fear and uncertainty in some section or sections of the society to start with, but subsequently it engulfs the entire society. Therefore those who use this language have a limited receptive audience.
It has been mentioned earlier that communication models are not concerned with the content of the message that is communicated, and communication theories do not seem to characterize successful communication in terms of the content of the message that is communicated: for example, whether the message is one of affirmation or of rejection, whether it seeks to uphold values that elevate people or spread thoughts that threaten to disintegrate a society. But the contrastive instances of Gandhi on the one hand and people like Hitler on the other show that perhaps the content of the message needs to be taken into account seriously by communication theorists because it might throw some light on why some persons have a more abiding impact on the people than do some others.
References
Bilgrami, Akeel (2002). “Gandhi’s integrity: the philosophy behind the politics”,
Postcolonial Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.79-93.
Chakravarty, Nikhil (1995). “Mahatma Gandhi: The Great Communicator”, Gandhi
Marg, January-March,1995, pp.389-397.
Fiske, John (1990). Introduction to Communication Studies. Routledge, London.
Gandhi, Rajmohan (1995). The Good Boatman. Viking, Penguin books India, New
Delhi. MacArthur, Brian (ed.) (1996). The Penguin Book of Historic Speeches, Penguin Books, London.
Mohanty, Surendra (1986). Patha O Pruthibi. Eastern Media, Bhubaneswar. (in Oriya)
Mukherjee, Rudrangshu (ed.)(1993). The Penguin Gandhi Reader. Penguin Books India,
New Delhi. Parekh, Bhikhu (2001). Gandhi: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, New York.
MacArthur, Brian (1996). The Penguin Book of Historic Speeches. Penguin Books,
London.
Parekh, Bhikhu (2001). Gandhi: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press,
New York.
Publication Division, Government of India (1994).All Are Equal in the Eyes of God (
Selections from Mahatma Gandhi’s Writings). Publications
Division, New Delhi. (Second Reprint) (First Published: 1964).
Rudolph, S.H. and L.I. Rudolph. Gandhi. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Stern, J.P.(1990). Hitler. Fontana Press, London. (First Published: 1975).
7